Browsing by Author "Adyanga, Francis Akena"
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Item Open Access Effect of Education Investment on Citizen Democratic Satisfaction and Living Conditions in Africa: A National Survey for Uganda.(Kabale University, 2024) Sekiwu, Denis; Adyanga, Francis Akena; Romm, Norma RAEducation spending is essential for the advancement of society since it can capacitate people to participate in economic, social, and political life while propelling socio-economic development. However, Sub-Saharan Africa continues to experience economic decline and democratic inadequacies despite large investments in education. This calls for a critical assessment of their effects on society broadly. Therefore, using a sample of 1200 respondents from the national Afrobarometer survey, this study investigates the relationship between democratic satisfaction, education investment, and living conditions in Uganda. The results show that there is a general lack of satisfaction with the investment made in education, particularly among less educated and rural communities. Higher education is inversely correlated with better living conditions and democratic satisfaction, according to bivariate and multivariate logistic regression models. These findings highlight the need for all-encompassing educational approaches that are geared toward raising living standards and citizen contentment with democracy.Item Open Access Effects of Universal Primary Education on Completion Rates of Pupils in Primary Schools in Isingiro District.(Kabale University, 2023) Ngabirano, Ziporah; Adyanga, Francis Akena; Ocan, JohnsonIntroducing UPE worldwide led to a surge in enrolment rates in most countries, which often overwhelmed and exceeded the capacity of education systems. Severe constraints such as a shortage of teachers and school materials led to overcrowding in Uganda, the student-teacher ratio moved from 37.6 million in 1996 to 59.4 million in 1997. Dropout rates also increased and survival rates sunk from 59% to 37%. Notable is that promoting a nation's social and economic growth depends on universal primary education. This article investigated the universal basic education policy and the primary school completion rates of pupils in Isingiro District in South Western Uganda. A secondary data review and a qualitative research approach were the study's compasses. Document analysis was done, data from articles reports, and research done by different scholars was collected to identify and examine relevant themes associated with the effect of UPE on completion rates in primary schools of the Isingiro district. The main conclusion was that the introduction of UPE in primary schools of the Isingiro district did not have an observable positive change in the completion rates at the end of primary seven as compared to when UPE was not yet introduced to the Ugandan education system.Item Open Access Experiences and Challenges of the Integrated Development Model on Job Creation in Rwanda’s Gasabo District.(Kabale University, 2025) Rutarindwa, Alphonse; Ocan, Johnson; Adyanga, Francis AkenaThis study proposes to explore the experiences and challenges of the integrated development program model on job creation in Rwanda’s Gasabo District. The study aims to understand how this model contributes to job opportunities, economic empowerment, and community development within the district. In terms of methodology, the study adopted a mixed methods approach. The study combined qualitative and quantitative research techniques. Surveys quantified the extent of job creation, while interviews explored the perceived social and economic impacts on the local population, including challenges encountered in implementing this model. The results revealed that implementing the integrated development model (IDM) in the Gasabo District reveals significant positive outcomes, particularly in healthcare, infrastructure, and financing initiatives for women and youth. High approval ratings were noted for health centre establishment (M = 4.90, SD = 0.43) and infrastructure improvements (M = 4.70, SD = 0.71), underscoring their critical roles in economic development. Job creation showed promise, with small-scale business initiation with a mean score of 4.66 although challenges in income diversification persisted (Mean = 3.84, St. dev = 1.26). A strong correlation (R = 0.807) was found between various predictors and job creation, with skills development emerging as a significant predictor (B = 0.149, p < .001). The study concluded that the integrated development program model promoting job creation in Gasabo District where the R Square value of 0.651 indicates that approximately 65.1% of the variance in job creation can be attributed to the implementation of the Integrated Development Model (IDM) in the Gasabo District. Limitations: the limitations of the study include potential biases in self-reported data and the geographical limitation to Gasabo District, which may not fully capture the national context. Contribution: The findings of this study contribute to the understanding of integrated development program models in job creation and provide policy recommendations for enhancing these interventions. By highlighting the role of community-based interventions, this research can provide a scalable model for other districts in Rwanda and beyond. Importantly this research increased insights into how integrated development program models can address unemployment and promote sustainable economic growth.Item Open Access Exploring the Root Causes of Low Household Income among Smallholder Farmers in Kamuli District, Busoga Region, Uganda.(Kabale University, 2024) Lubaale, Ronald Gideon; Ocan, Johnson; Adyanga, Francis AkenaThis study investigated the root causes of low household incomes among smallholder farmers in Kamuli District, Busoga Region, Uganda. Employing a mixed methods approach, the research integrated quantitative and qualitative data collection methods to comprehensively explore the factors influencing household income. The study population comprised 100 smallholder farmers and 20 key informants, totaling 120 respondents. Simple random sampling and purposive sampling were used to select respondents. Data analysis was conducted using SPSS, and reliability statistics indicated a high level of internal consistency among survey items. Qualitative data was analyzed by using thematic analysis. The findings revealed significant challenges faced by smallholder farmers in Kamuli District. These challenges were categorized into agricultural production practices and technologies, institutional factors and market dynamics, and environmental factors and shocks. Limited adoption of modern agricultural practices, poor market access, and climate variability emerged as key impediments to income generation. Possible strategies to address these challenges were identified, including the adoption of modern agricultural practices, investment in training and extension services, infrastructure improvements, access to credit, and establishment of farmer cooperative associations. These strategies aimed to enhance agricultural productivity, market access, and resilience to environmental shocks. The study underscored the interconnectedness of challenges faced by smallholder farmers and emphasized the need for integrated interventions involving technological innovations, institutional reforms, and climate adaptation measures. Collaboration among stakeholders was essential to implement effective solutions and promote sustainable development in agricultural communities. By addressing the root causes of low household income, this study sought to contribute to poverty reduction and food security in Kamuli District and beyond.Item Open Access Factors Influencing Recentralization of Local Government Functions in Uganda.(Kabale University, 2024) Biryomumeisho, Stephen; Ocan, Johnson; Adyanga, Francis AkenaThe decentralization system of governance is perceived as one of the recent public sector reforms to improve service delivery in Uganda. It is the transfer of authority from Central to Local Governments to execute their duties to improve service delivery. Various developing countries have praised Uganda’s decentralization policy regarding the magnitude of the transfer of authority to the local level. However, since 2003, the Central Government started reversing the policy in terms of decentralization of the appointment of Chief Administrative Officers and Municipal Town Clerks and of recent City Town Clerks (for new cities in Uganda) from the District Service Commissions (DSCs) to the Public Service Commission, recentralization of Kampala Capital City Authority (KCCA) under the management of the Executive Director, Procurement of drugs from the district health office to the National Medical Stores (NMS), recentralization of the payroll and the recent recentralization of local revenue collection from LGs. This paper focuses on the factors influencing the decentralization of Local Government powers in Uganda. This is presumed to be evidence of the demise of the recentralization policy. From the reviewed articles, these factors include accountability challenges, human resource management crisis, political interference by local authorities and lack of financial discipline among local authorities and fear of local autonomy. The paper concluded that decentralization of Local Government functions reduced undue influence of local politicians though it accorded excessive powers to executive officers in Local Governments; the human resource crisis was mainly caused by poor man power planning. Recentralisation of local revenue caused financial constraints at the local level and recentralisation of KCCA led to the weakening of the opposition but led to increases resources to develop the capital city. The paper recommended that the Parliament should harmonize with the central government on the issue of returning Local revenue collection and management at the local level; give reasonable powers to the local Governments to control top technical leadership; increase funding to Central Government staff to monitor Local Government programs and build the capacity of local leaders to improve service delivery.Item Open Access Lifelong Educational and Decolonization Programs for the Batwa Indigenous People of Southwestern Uganda.(Kabale University, 2024) Sekiwu, Denis; Adyanga, Francis Akena; Musoke, Genza Gyaviira; Rugambwa, Nina Olivia; Muwagga, Anthony MugaggaThis article is based on a study conducted among the Batwa Indigenous people in southwestern Uganda between 2021 and 2022. The study aimed to explore culturally relevant lifelong education and decolonization programs for the Batwa people. Using indigenous research methodology, 60 participants comprising of elders, parents, children and teachers were recruited from the Batwa community for the study. We used Egalitarian liberalism and justice in education (ELJE) theory as an analytical framework. Key findings demonstrate that participants were conscious of the challenges faced by their community and collectively brainstormed practical redress measures. These measures include but are not limited to setting up an entrepreneurship education program, vocational and skilling programs, and promotion of Rutwa language. Besides, some specific Batwa life skills identified by participants are briefly described as imperative for integration in the schooling system to achieve the decolonization mission.Item Open Access Management and Utilisation of Land Resources to Attain Economic Sustainability among Christians in West Ankole Diocese, Uganda.(Kabale University, 2024) Ahereza, Madelean; Ocan, Johnson; Adyanga, Francis AkenaThe study set out to investigate the land resources that are accessible in the West Ankole Diocese, their management and use, and the obstacles that stand in the way of the diocese achieving the targeted level of economic sustainability. Districts of Bushenyi, Sheema, Mitooma, Rubirizi, and Buhweju, form the Greater Bushenyi area which is all included in the West Ankole diocese. The study incorporated qualitative as well as quantitative techniques, such as the observation method, focus groups, and one-on-one interviews. Using these methods, researchers observed the behavior of study participants and made inferences about their responses and operations. It was anticipated that the primary conclusions of the results would clarify some shortcomings, highlighting gaps in the methods used for the utilization of terrestrial resources, which resulted in development imbalances, high rates of malnutrition, and food shortages while other resources remained idle. The reasons for this were further explored, and potential mitigation strategies were put forth. In terms of contribution, this study suggested regulated population expansion, informed instruction in contemporary land use, and a shift in land ownership. The limitations of the study concluded that the problems addressed in this research and the suggestions presented provide the basis for improving the land use practices being conducted. The study looked for novel strategies that, if adopted, would enhance the economic livelihoods in West Ankole Diocese and raise living standards and sustainably generate income. It also identified land resource practices that have contributed to underdevelopment. According to the study, in order to achieve sustainable growth through the use of land resources, the diocese would eventually generate higher economic gains from the resources if the relevant authorities were empowered. The research has been carried out in Uganda for the first time, despite being founded on a review of pertinent papers.Item Open Access Study on Innovative Practices to Promote Girls’ Retention and Transition to Secondary and Higher Learning Institutions in Sub-Saharan Africa.(Kabale University, 2024) Ayiga, Natal; Adyanga, Francis Akena; Akello, JacquelineThis report presents the study's findings on “Innovative Practices to Promote Girls’ Retention and Transition to Secondary and Higher Learning Institutions in Uganda.” Despite efforts to expand access to girl child education through the UPE and USE programs, retention and transition of girls through primary and secondary education have been low. This has been due to the high dropout rates, particularly among girls. At the national level, the dropout rates are higher in the primary than in secondary education, leading to the failure to achieve equity and equality in education between boys and girls. This situation calls for actions to promote the reentry of girls who previously dropped out of school and ensure their retention and transition from primary to secondary education. The study's main objective is to identify innovative practices for promoting the reentry, retention, and transition of girls through the primary to secondary levels of education and to highlight the barriers to the reentry, retention, and transition of girls who previously dropped out of school. The specific objectives of the study are to: 1. Assess the status of girls' retention and transition at primary and secondary levels of education; 2. Determine factors that exacerbate the dropout of girls in primary and secondary school education; 3. Establish the adoption and status of implementation of school reentry policy and/or guidelines; and 4. Identify innovative and promising practices that promote school reentry and retention for girls at primary and secondary schools. The study was conducted in the West Nile, Northern, and Eastern Uganda in the districts of Yumbe, Adjumani, Amuru, Bugweri, Dokolo, Manafwa, Pader, Lira City, Kamuli, and Tororo. Collectively, the population of these districts was estimated at 2,150,000 million people in 2021. The socioeconomic indicators of the study population show that the population in these districts is multidimensionally poor with rates ranging from 41.5% in Busoga, 57% in Lango, 63.7% in Acholi, and 59.1% in West Nile. The economy of the study regions is predominantly agricultural with the majority of the population depending on subsistence farming, living in rural areas, and currently, the poorest in all aspects of development in Uganda. The study used a cross-sectional research design and collected both primary and secondary data. The primary data was collected by using 7 tools containing both quantitative and qualitative data. The structured questionnaire, in-depth interviews, and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) were used to collect the data. An extensive literature review was also conducted to acquire some of the data that was used in the study. The target population for the study included teenage girls who previously dropped out of school due to pregnancy and motherhood, parents/guardians to pregnant or teenage mothers, learners in schools, school administrators and health facilities serving the school communities and selected schools involved in the study and key education sector stakeholders in the selected districts. The main findings of the study a. From the perspectives of teenage mothers, learners, school administrators, parents/guardians, and key community leaders, teenage pregnancy is a major concern in the study districts. Over 70% of participants reported that teenage pregnancy is a major problem that must be fought head-on. The majority of teenage pregnancies take place in primary schools at the ages of 15-17 years and in Grades 5-7. Yumbe, Kamuli, Manafwa and Adjumani districts were leading other districts in the study on the prevalence of teenage pregnancy among learners. b. All learners who became pregnant dropped out of school. Of the pregnant teenagers, the majority were married by the time of the study. About 55% and 45% of the pregnant learners were married and single respectively. c. The main causes of teenage pregnancy among learners were identified to be poverty in households that leads to failures of families to pay school fees and provide for the needs of girls, lack of guidance on sexuality by parents and schools, negative peer influence, and defilement mostly perpetrated by older adult men. d. Perpetrators of teenage pregnancy include male peers of similar age or slightly older, adult men including Businessmen, Boda Boda taxi riders, and teachers who exploit the vulnerability of girls. Incest with relatives was also blamed for teenage learner pregnancy. e. Dropping out of school temporarily or permanently is the most common short-term impact of teenage pregnancy. Teenage mothers who return to school are often required to repeat classes and perform poorly at school due to childcare challenges and socioeconomic hardships. f. At the national level, there is a positive trend in the enrolment of both girls and boys in primary and secondary education, and parity between boys and girls in each year of enrolment has been achieved. i. However, primary education completion rates stagnated and declined in the period for which national data is available (2013-2017). ii. The transition rate from primary to secondary declined from 72% in 2013 to about 60% in 2017. There were no differences between boys and girls in the transition from primary to secondary education. g. The results from study districts revealed that the number of learners transitioning from P1 through completion at P7 for both boys and girls in rural and urban schools declined monotonically. The intergrade transition rate and primary 7 completion rate were lower for girls than for boys, confirming that fewer girls than boys complete P7 and transition to secondary education. h. The study found that 428 girls became pregnant while studying. Of these, only 39.3% returned to school. The age, level of education, and grade at pregnancy affected the likelihood of school reentry. Only 14.8% of teenage mothers under the age of 15 years returned to school, compared to 42.3% and 42.1% of teenage mothers who become 3 pregnant at the age of 15-17 years and 18 years or older respectively. Lack of fees, being married, fear of stigmatization by peers and teachers in schools, and low perception of self-worth and low esteem are some of the main barriers to school reentry. i. The study's findings show that of the 104 teenage mothers who returned to school, about 53% transitioned to secondary education. Another 13.5% joined alternative education pathways. The proportion of learners transitioning from primary to secondary education decreased with age and grade at pregnancy. Adoption and Implementation of Guidelines for Reentry and Retention In 2020, the MoE&S passed and rolled out guidelines for the management of teenage pregnancy and reentry and management of adolescent mothers in school settings. The study found that these guidelines are being implemented at various levels in several schools. These guidelines include: a. Girls are required to come with a medical report while reporting back to school. They are also periodically tested for pregnancy during school terms. b. Parents of girls, found pregnant are summoned to school to appropriately evacuate them home and plan for the way forward. c. School send girls home as soon as they are discovered pregnant and pregnant learners and their parents are counseled on the type of support and care the girls need during pregnancy. d. Teenage girls in candidate classes who become pregnant are allowed to come to school and sit their final examinations. e. Some perpetrators of teenage pregnancy in school settings have been prosecuted. However, more needs to be done by putting in place deterrent measures to stop the vice. f. Schools are allowing teenage mothers to return to school and some allow them to come to school with their babies as long as a childcare provider is present. However, no facilities have been provided for child care. g. Schools having teenage mothers have instated mechanisms to protect them from stigma and discrimination by other learners and teachers. h. Counseling of learners on sexuality is provided to learners by female and male teachers. Schools are disseminating information about teenage pregnancy, its impacts, and ways of protecting teenage girls against it. i. Learners are provided regular briefs during assemblies on negative peer pressure and are also provided life skills to engage in responsible relationships in the community of learners. j. Schools have teenage mothers with NGOs/CBOs for support for both reentry and retention in school as well as childcare support. k. NGOs/CBOs in the education sector are conducting parents and community sensitization on the importance and benefits of keeping girls in school as well as reentry of girls who dropped out of school including those due to teenage pregnancy and motherhood. l. NGOs/CBOs are implementing alternative education pathways such as the ASEP and skills-based education for school dropouts including those due to teenage pregnancy and motherhood. Innovative and Promising Interventions The study identified the following interventions for reentry, retention, and transition from primary to secondary education: a. Provision of childcare facilities in schools: Providing childcare facilities in schools could be a promising intervention for teenage mothers to reenter, remain in school, and complete primary and secondary education. b. Providing alternative learning environments: Enrolling teenage mothers in a different school could protect them from stigmatization by peers and teachers. c. Providing alternative learning pathways: Alternative education pathways intended to build the knowledge and skills of teenage mothers to be able to navigate socioeconomic conditions as they grow into adulthood, should be promoted. d. Introduction of Sexual and Reproductive Health Services and Commodities (SRHS&C): These services and commodities could prevent pregnancy and repeat pregnancies among sexually active girls and teenage mothers respectively. e. Counseling services for pregnant and teenage mothers: Counseling has the potential to address not only stigmatizing attitudes by teachers and fellow learners but also issues of self-esteem and self-worth among teenage mothers. f. Support for teenage mothers to reenter and remain at school: Government and other education stakeholders' support in providing conditional cash transfers for teenage mothers to meet school and personal needs and childcare has promise for the reentry and retention of teenage mothers in school. g. Introduce courses that teach life skills to learners in primary schools: This will enable learners to understand and manage the physiological, psychological, and emotional changes girls experience as they transition through the turbulent years of adolescence.Item Open Access Teachers' Competence as an Avenue for "Learning Through Play Pedagogy" in Preschools: A Case of Makindye Ssabagabo Division.(Kabale University, 2024) Ngalonsa, Luciana; Ocan, Johnson; Adyanga, Francis AkenaThe purpose of this study was to establish whether teacher competence can enhance the use of learning through play (LTP) pedagogy in preschools. Specifically, the objectives of the study were to; examine how teachers' knowledge of the strand matter influences the use of learning through play in preschools, to establish whether teachers' knowledge about learners influences the implementation of learning through play in preschool, and to assess teachers' pedagogical knowledge needed on the use of learning through play in pre-schools. The study was guided by scaffolding instruction as a teaching strategy from the social constructivist theory by Levy Vygotsky (1978). The study adopted a case study design. The study population comprised preschool class teachers, heads of sections, head teachers, and pupils in class observation. Purposive sampling was used to apportion individual members selected. Data was collected using the interview schedule, focus group discussions, and documentary analysis. The qualitative data was analyzed using content analysis and presented in narrative form. These techniques involved observing the study participants & behavior and drawing conclusions based on their responses and actions in the way they engaged in incorporating the learning through play pedagogy. The main findings of the results highlighted and approved that some of the teachers were competent in using the learning through play pedagogy while others still used the teacher-centered approach. Teachers conducted play without a pre-conceived pedagogical purpose. Others still involved children in the learning process in the absence of play. Further investigation revealed that those doing it well had received continuous professional development support, unlike the rest. In terms of contribution, the research recommended pedagogical advancements by showcasing the benefits of learning through play. The novelty of the study concluded that the problems addressed in this research and the suggestions presented provide the basis for improving ECD practices while using play in learning.Item Open Access The Impact of Academic Staff Appraisals on Job performance in Rwanda's Private Universities.(Kabale University, 2024) Ngirabakunzi, Felicien; Ocan, Johnson; Adyanga, Francis AkenaThe study aimed to investigate the impact of staff appraisals on job performance within higher education institutions in Rwanda. Its objectives were to assess the types of appraisals conducted in private universities, evaluate job performance in a selected university, and determine the impact of staff appraisal on job performance. Methodologically, the study employed a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative and qualitative research methods. A sample of 40 academic staff and 2 senior officials from one university was selected using universal and purposive sampling techniques. Data was collected through structured questionnaires and one-on-one interviews. Key quantitative findings included a low frequency of academic staff appraisals, with Management by Objectives (MBO) and self-evaluation being the predominant methods. Despite this, job performance among academic staff was generally high, with an overall mean score of 3.49. Statistical analysis revealed a significant correlation (p < 0.01) between staff appraisals and job performance, indicating a moderate relationship (r = 0.547) between the two variables. Based on these findings, it is recommended that higher education institutions in Rwanda consider enhancing their staff appraisal systems to further improve job performance. Implementing more regular and comprehensive appraisal processes, along with diverse appraisal methods, could potentially lead to increased motivation and productivity among academic staff.Item Open Access The Role of Savings and Lending Groups in the Financial Inclusion of Rural Women Entrepreneurs: A Case Study of IMPABARUTA Cooperative in Kamonyi District, Rwanda.(Kabale University, 2025) Mukamwezi, Albertine; Ocan, Johnson; Adyanga, Francis AkenaThis article examined the role of savings and Lending Groups (SLGs) in promoting small business creation among rural women entrepreneurs, using IMPABARUTA Cooperative in Kamonyi district. It is aimed at assessing how SLGs facilitate the establishment and growth of small enterprises, and how they impact women’s access to financial resources. A descriptive research design was employed to explore the role of SLGs. A purposive sampling method was used to select 200 respondents from 408 Cooperative women members. Structured questionnaires, semi-structured interviews, and document reviews were used for data collection. The main findings revealed the transformative role of savings and lending groups in promoting financial inclusion among rural women in Kamonyi District, Rwanda. A paired t-test revealed significant increases in savings (from 50,000 Rwf to 500,000 Rwf) and loan access (from 10% to 80%) after joining the IMPABARUTA Cooperative. The statistical results underscore the groups’ effectiveness in enhancing financial habits and credit availability. These changes economically empower women, allowing them to invest in enterprises and promote broader community development, particularly in underdeveloped rural areas. Further, challenges such as trust issues,Item Open Access Theoretical Review of Pay Restructuring in Uganda's Public Service Health Sector.(Kabale University, 2024) Olum, Samson; Adyanga, Francis Akena; Ocan, JohnsonThis article examines the impact of wage reforms on service delivery, financial stability, managerial efficiency, and donor influence and focuses on the public health sector in Uganda. Like other reforming countries, Uganda also implemented salary structure reform for various reasons, but the most important ones were to pay civil servants a living wage, make remuneration transparent, align the salary structure with the single-spine structure, and consequently increase the number of employees' motivation and efficiency in service delivery. The study analyzed research articles, policy documents, reports, and media coverage on pay changes for public health workers. Key findings show that the original goal of wage reforms, such as the single-spine structure has not been achieved; several pay scale structures were reintroduced. Different service models are used to calculate wages. Similar cadres of civil servants receive different salary grades; and wage allocation receives more funding than other areas, such as development and supplies. The results suggest that salary increases affect allocations in other important areas but do not always result in public health workers' commitment to service. Compromise and negotiation have played an important role in public sector wage restructuring. A review of wage reforms implemented across Uganda's public sector will be based on the recommendations and issues addressed in this study. The study provides crucial benchmarks with regard to wage reform strategies that promote diversity in the public sector and the distribution of authorities. This study is unique because it focuses on wage restructuring in the public sector to align practices with policies. Although based on a review of relevant documents, it was conducted for the first time in Uganda.Item Open Access Water Service Delivery Issues and Challenges for the Urban Poor Zones in Southwestern Uganda.(Kabale University, 2024) Muhamya, Horace; Ocan, Johnson; Adyanga, Francis AkenaThe article aims to examine the issues and challenges associated with providing water services to urban impoverished areas in Southwestern Uganda. The research methodology employed in this study involved conducting a comprehensive desktop study and literature review, systematically searching, and selecting peer-reviewed journal articles, books, and conference proceedings within a specified scope, using carefully chosen keywords and search criteria. After collating and evaluating the selected literature, a thorough synthesis was done to identify existing knowledge gaps and provide insights into the research questions under investigation. The main findings of the results highlight the need for integrated service models to expand water service delivery for the urban poor zones in southwestern Uganda. The study concludes that the problems addressed in this research and the suggestions presented provide the basis for improving water services to urban impoverished areas in Southwestern Uganda. This research will broaden service models for urban areas while also creating service models for locations with features of impoverished conditions. It is crucial to remember that households in urban cells were more likely to use improved water sources (including piped water on-premises), make regular payments for water,rely on shared sanitation facilities, and use manual sludge emptying services.